| Latest Civics / Political Science NCERT Notes, Solutions and Extra Q & A (Class 8th to 12th) | |||||||||||||||||||
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| Class 10th Chapters | ||
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| 1. Power-Sharing | 2. Federalism | 3. Gender, Religion And Caste |
| 4. Political Parties | 5. Outcomes Of Democracy | |
Chapter 3 Gender, Religion And Caste
The presence of social diversity is not inherently a threat to democracy. In fact, the political expression of social differences can be both possible and sometimes beneficial in a democratic system. This chapter explores how social differences based on gender, religion, and caste manifest in India, how they are expressed in politics, and whether these expressions are constructive or detrimental to democracy.
Gender And Politics
Gender division is a fundamental social hierarchy present globally, yet it is often overlooked in political analysis. This division is frequently perceived as natural or unchangeable, but it is actually rooted in societal expectations and stereotypes rather than biological differences.
Public/private Division
Societal conditioning often leads boys and girls to believe that women's primary responsibility is domestic work and childcare. This results in a **sexual division of labour** within most families.
Sexual Division Of Labour
This system assigns specific tasks based on gender: women typically perform all household duties like cooking, cleaning, washing, and childcare, while men handle work outside the home. This division is based on the assumption that household work is inherently 'women's work'. Interestingly, when these same tasks are paid (e.g., cooking in a hotel, tailoring), men are often willing to perform them.
Unpaid And Invisible Work
While women also work outside the home (fetching water, collecting fuel, working in fields in villages; domestic help or office jobs in urban areas), a significant portion of their work, particularly domestic labor, remains unpaid and often unrecognized, even though it contributes to the household and economy. Studies, like the Time Use Survey in India, show that women often work longer hours than men daily, but much of their work is unpaid and less visible.
Time Use Survey (1998-99) Findings (Average Daily Hours: Minutes):
| Activity | Men | Women |
|---|---|---|
| Income generating work | 6:00 | 2:40 |
| Household and related work | 0:30 | 5:00 |
| Talking, Gossip | 1:25 | 1:20 |
| No work/ Leisure | 3:40 | 3:50 |
| Sleep, self-care, reading etc. | 12:25 | 11:10 |
Minimal Role In Public Life
The consequence of this sexual division of labour is that women, despite making up half the population, have historically had a minimal role in public life, especially politics, in most societies. Traditionally, public affairs, voting rights, and contesting elections were exclusively open to men.
Agitation For Equal Rights (Feminist Movements)
Gradually, gender inequality became a political issue. Women globally organized and agitated for equal rights, including the right to vote and opportunities in education and careers. More radical women's movements, known as feminist movements (movements advocating for equal rights and opportunities for women and men), pushed for equality in personal and family life as well.
Political Expression Improves Women's Role
The political expression of gender division and mobilization around these issues has contributed to improving women's participation in public life. Women are now seen in professions previously considered unsuitable, such as scientists, doctors, engineers, lawyers, and academics. In some countries, particularly Scandinavian nations like Sweden, Norway, and Finland, women's participation in public life is notably high.
Women Still Lag Behind In India
Despite some progress since India's Independence, women continue to lag behind men in various aspects. India remains a male-dominated, patriarchal society (a system valuing men more and giving them power over women), where women face disadvantages, discrimination, and oppression.
Patriarchal Society
India continues to be characterized by a patriarchal social structure.
Literacy Rate And Higher Studies
Discrimination is evident in education: the female literacy rate (54%) is significantly lower than the male rate (76%). A smaller proportion of girls pursue higher education, as parents often prioritize investing in their sons' education.
Proportion In Highly Paid Jobs
Consequently, women are underrepresented in highly paid and valued jobs.
Equal Remuneration Act, 1976
Although the Equal Remuneration Act, 1976, mandates equal pay for equal work, women are consistently paid less than men for the same jobs across various sectors, including sports, cinema, factories, and agriculture.
Sex-selective Abortion And Child Sex Ratio
A severe form of discrimination is the preference for sons, leading to sex-selective abortions. This has resulted in a decline in the child sex ratio (girls per thousand boys), which stood at a low 919 in 2011 nationally, falling below 850 or even 800 in some states.
Harassment, Exploitation And Violence
Women in India face various forms of harassment, exploitation, and violence. Urban areas are often considered unsafe, and women are vulnerable even within their homes to domestic violence.
Women’s Political Representation
Despite these issues, the well-being of women often doesn't receive adequate political attention. This has led women's movements to advocate for greater women's control over power through increased political representation.
Low Proportion In Legislature (Lok Sabha, State Assemblies)
In India, women's representation in legislative bodies has historically been very low. In the 2019 Lok Sabha elections, women elected members constituted only 14.36% of the total strength, and their share in state assemblies is even lower, below 5%. India ranks among the bottom nations globally in this regard, falling behind the averages for many African and Latin American countries.
India Among Bottom Nations
India's low political representation for women places it significantly behind global averages.
All-male Cabinets
Government cabinets often remain predominantly male, even when a woman holds the position of Chief Minister or Prime Minister.
Legal Binding For Fair Proportion
One proposed solution is to legally mandate a minimum proportion of women in elected bodies.
Reservation In Local Government Bodies (Panchayati Raj)
India's Panchayati Raj system has already implemented this by reserving one-third of seats in local government bodies (Panchayats and Municipalities) for women, resulting in over 10 lakh elected women representatives at the local level.
Womens’ Reservation Act, 2023
Responding to long-standing demands, the Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam (Women's Reservation Act, 2023) was passed, providing 33% reservation for women in the Lok Sabha, State Legislative Assemblies, and the Delhi Assembly. This act is expected to be implemented after the next census and delimitation exercise.
Disadvantaged Groups Benefit From Political Expression
The case of gender division illustrates that expressing certain social divisions politically can be beneficial. Disadvantaged groups can gain attention and make progress when their unequal treatment becomes a political issue. It is unlikely that women in India would have achieved the gains noted above if gender inequality had not been raised and addressed in the political domain.
Religion, Communalism And Politics
Moving to a different form of social division, this section examines differences based on religion. While not as universal as gender division, religious diversity is common globally, and religious differences are frequently expressed in politics.
Division Based On Religious Differences
Many countries, including India, are home to followers of various religions. Even within a single religion, differences in practice can lead to tensions, as seen in Northern Ireland.
Instances Of Relationship Between Religion And Politics
Examples of the relationship between religion and politics include:
- Mahatma Gandhi's view that religion (referring to universal moral values, not specific faiths) should guide politics.
- Human rights groups demanding government action to prevent communal riots and protect religious minorities.
- Women's movements highlighting discriminatory family laws in all religions and demanding changes for greater equality.
Ideas, Ideals And Values In Politics
Incorporating ideas, ideals, and values from different religions into politics is not inherently wrong; in fact, it can be beneficial. People should be able to express their needs and interests as members of a religious community in the political sphere.
Regulating Religion To Prevent Discrimination
Furthermore, political power holders may need to intervene in religious practices to prevent discrimination and oppression, provided they treat all religions equally.
Communalism
The problems arise with **communalism**, which is the belief that religion forms the primary basis of a nation or social community. As seen in the example of Northern Ireland, this approach to nationalism can be dangerous.
Problem When Religion Is Basis Of Nation
Identifying a nation solely based on religion leads to significant problems.
Exclusive And Partisan Terms
Communalism becomes particularly acute when religion is used in politics in exclusive and partisan ways, creating divisions and animosity between religious groups.
One Religion Pitted Against Another
This happens when one religion is presented as superior, when the demands of one religious group conflict with others, or when state power is used to establish the dominance of one religion.
Communal Politics Based On Religion As Community Basis
Communal politics is rooted in the idea that religion is the main foundation of social community. This mindset leads to the belief that followers of a particular religion form a single community with shared fundamental interests, disregarding other differences.
Belief That Followers Of One Religion Must Belong To One Community
Communal thinking posits that religious identity is the primary and overriding identity.
Flawed Belief
This belief is fundamentally flawed. Individuals of the same religion have diverse interests, roles, and identities in various contexts.
Multiple Identities And Voices Within Community
There are multiple perspectives and voices within any religious community that have a right to be heard.
Suppression Of Voices
Attempts to unite all followers of a religion solely on religious grounds inevitably suppress the diversity of views and interests within that community.
Various Forms Of Communalism In Politics
Communalism manifests in politics in several ways:
Everyday Beliefs (Prejudices, Stereotypes, Superiority)
The most common form is in everyday beliefs, which often include religious prejudices, stereotypes, and a sense of one's religion being superior. These are often so ingrained that they go unnoticed.
Quest For Political Dominance
Communal thinking can lead to a desire for one's religious community to dominate politically. This takes the form of majoritarianism for the majority community and potentially a desire for a separate political unit for minorities.
Political Mobilisation On Religious Lines
Political mobilization using religious symbols, leaders, emotional appeals, and fear to unite people of one religion for political purposes is a frequent communal tactic.
Communal Violence, Riots And Massacre
In its most extreme and horrific form, communalism results in violence, riots, and massacres, as witnessed during the Partition of India and in post-Independence India.
Secular State
Communalism has been and remains a significant challenge to democracy in India. The makers of the Indian Constitution recognized this threat and chose the model of a **secular state**.
Communalism As A Major Challenge
Communalism poses a persistent threat to India's democratic and pluralistic fabric.
Makers Of Constitution Chose Secular State Model
The founders of modern India deliberately adopted secularism as a core principle.
Constitutional Provisions
Several constitutional provisions reflect this commitment to secularism:
No Official Religion
The Indian state does not have an official religion, unlike countries that accord special status to a particular faith.
Freedom Of Religion
The Constitution grants all individuals and communities the freedom to practice, profess, and propagate any religion, or to not follow any religion.
Prohibition Of Discrimination
Discrimination based on religion is strictly prohibited.
State Intervention (Banning Untouchability)
The Constitution allows the state to intervene in religious matters to ensure equality within religious communities (e.g., banning untouchability).
Secularism As Foundation Of The Country
Secularism is not merely an ideology of certain groups but a fundamental cornerstone of India.
Communalism Threatens Idea Of India
Communalism endangers the very idea of India as a diverse and inclusive nation.
Combating Communalism
A secular constitution is necessary but insufficient to combat communalism. Communal prejudices and mobilization must be actively challenged in everyday life and politics.
Religious Diversity in India (2011 Census):
The census records the religion of each citizen. As per the 2011 census: Hindus 79.8%, Muslims 14.2%, Christians 2.3%, Sikhs 1.7%, Buddhists 0.7%, Jains 0.4%, Other Religions 0.7%, Religion Not Stated 0.2%. While the total population of each community has grown, their proportion has remained relatively stable since 1961, with marginal changes. Expert estimates suggest the proportion of Muslims may increase slightly over the next 50 years, but the overall balance is unlikely to change drastically.
Caste And Politics
This section examines the relationship between caste and politics in India, highlighting both the positive and negative aspects of expressing this social division in the political arena.
Caste Inequalities
Caste division is a form of social stratification uniquely prevalent in India, although other societies have social inequalities and divisions of labour, including hereditary occupations. What distinguishes the caste system is that this hereditary occupational division was reinforced and sanctioned by rituals.
Caste Division Special To India
The rigid structure of the caste system is a distinct feature of Indian society.
Hereditary Occupational Division Sanctioned By Rituals
Occupations were traditionally determined by birth and enforced through ritualistic norms.
Social Community, Marriage, Food Rules
Members of the same caste were expected to form a social community, follow similar occupations, marry only within their caste (endogamy), and adhere to strict rules about eating with members of other castes.
Exclusion And Discrimination (Untouchability)
The caste system was inherently based on the exclusion and discrimination of certain groups, particularly the 'outcaste' groups who were subjected to the inhumane practice of **untouchability**.
Efforts Of Political Leaders And Social Reformers
Prominent political leaders and social reformers like Jotiba Phule, Mahatma Gandhi, B.R. Ambedkar, and Periyar Ramaswami Naicker actively campaigned and worked towards dismantling caste inequalities and establishing a society free from caste-based discrimination.
Changes In Castes And Caste System In Modern India
Due to these reform efforts and broader socio-economic changes, the caste system in modern India has undergone significant transformations.
Breaking Down Of Old Notions
Economic development, large-scale **urbanization** (shift to urban areas), increased literacy and education, growing **occupational mobility** (ability to change occupation across generations), and the weakening power of landlords in villages have contributed to the breakdown of traditional caste hierarchies and rigid norms.
Caste Has Not Disappeared
Despite these changes, caste has not vanished from contemporary India. Some older aspects persist.
Persistence Of Older Aspects
Most people still tend to marry within their own caste or tribe. Untouchability, although legally prohibited, has not been completely eradicated.
Effects Of Advantages And Disadvantages
The historical advantages and disadvantages associated with caste continue to be felt. Caste groups that traditionally had access to education have generally done well in modern education, while those who were denied education continue to lag behind. This explains the disproportionate representation of 'upper castes' among the urban middle classes.
Link To Economic Status
Caste remains closely linked to economic status, although not as rigidly as in the past. While rich and poor individuals can be found in every caste today, the proportion of those living in extreme poverty is significantly higher among the lowest castes (Scheduled Tribes and Scheduled Castes) and lower among the upper castes, with Other Backward Classes in between.
Caste Inequality Today
Caste continues to influence access to resources and is a source of economic inequality. While legal reforms have outlawed formal caste-based discrimination, the cumulative effects of historical disadvantages persist. The relationship between caste and economic status has become more complex, but data from the National Sample Survey still shows a strong correlation, with lower castes having higher proportions below the poverty line compared to upper castes.
Percentage of population living below the poverty line, 1999–2000:
| Caste and Community groups | Rural | Urban |
|---|---|---|
| Scheduled Tribes | 45.8 | 35.6 |
| Scheduled Castes | 35.9 | 38.3 |
| Other Backward Classes | 27.0 | 29.5 |
| Muslim Upper Castes | 26.8 | 34.2 |
| Hindu Upper Castes | 11.7 | 9.9 |
| Christian Upper Castes | 9.6 | 5.4 |
| Sikh Upper Castes | 0.0 | 4.9 |
| Other Upper Castes | 16.0 | 2.7 |
| All Groups | 27.0 | 23.4 |
Caste In Politics
Similar to communalism, **casteism** is based on the belief that caste is the sole determinant of social community, implying shared interests within a caste that are not shared with others. This belief is also flawed and not supported by experience; caste is one identity among many.
Casteism Rooted In Belief Of Caste As Sole Social Community
Casteism is the ideology that emphasizes caste as the primary basis of community.
Belief Is Flawed
This narrow view of community is incorrect.
Caste As One Aspect, Not Only Relevant
Caste is one important aspect of identity but not the only or most significant one in all contexts.
Caste Can Take Various Forms In Politics
Caste manifests in politics in several ways:
Choosing Candidates Based On Caste Composition
Parties consider the caste demographics of constituencies when nominating candidates to secure support.
Formation Of Governments (Representation Of Castes)
Political parties often ensure representation of different castes in government formation.
Appeals To Caste Sentiment
Candidates and parties appeal to caste identities and sentiments during elections.
Parties Favoring Castes
Some parties are perceived as favoring or representing specific castes.
Universal Adult Franchise And One-person-one-vote
The principle of universal adult franchise has compelled political leaders to mobilize support across different caste groups.
Focus On Caste In Politics Can Be Misleading
While caste plays a role, focusing solely on it can distort the understanding of election outcomes.
No Clear Majority Of Single Caste
No single caste forms a clear majority in any parliamentary constituency.
No Party Wins Votes Of All Voters Of A Caste
Parties do not receive all votes from a particular caste group; 'vote banks' refer to a large proportion, not all, voters.
Multiple Candidates From Same Caste
Multiple candidates from the same caste might contest in a constituency.
Ruling Party And Sitting Members Lose Elections
The fact that ruling parties and incumbents frequently lose elections demonstrates that caste alone does not determine voting preferences.
Caste Matters, But Other Factors Too
Election results are influenced by various factors beyond caste.
Attachment To Political Parties
Voters' loyalty to political parties is often stronger than their caste or community attachment.
Different Interests Within Same Caste
Economic conditions and gender create different interests within the same caste group, leading to varied voting patterns.
Assessment Of Government Performance
Voters' evaluation of the government's performance and leaders' popularity are often decisive factors.
Politics In Caste
The relationship is bidirectional: politics also influences the caste system by bringing caste identities into the political arena, leading to the politicization of caste.
Politics Influences Caste System
Political processes impact the caste system and how caste is perceived and mobilized.
Caste Gets Politicised
Caste becomes a factor in political calculations and strategies.
Forms Of Politicisation
Politicization of caste takes several forms:
Caste Group Tries To Become Bigger
Caste groups attempt to expand by incorporating neighboring castes or sub-castes.
Caste Groups Enter Into Coalition
Different caste groups form coalitions and engage in political dialogue and negotiation.
New Kinds Of Caste Groups
New categories like 'backward' and 'forward' caste groups emerge in the political sphere.
Different Roles Of Caste In Politics
Caste plays varied roles in politics, some constructive and some detrimental.
Expression Of Caste Differences Gives Space To Disadvantaged Communities
Expressing caste differences politically can empower disadvantaged groups to demand their share of power and access to decision-making.
Caste Politics Helps Dalits And OBCs
Caste politics has facilitated better access to decision-making for groups like Dalits and OBCs.
Organizations Demand End To Discrimination
Various organizations advocate against caste discrimination and demand dignity and access to resources and opportunities for oppressed castes.
Exclusive Attention To Caste Can Produce Negative Results
Focusing solely on caste in politics can have negative consequences.
Diverts Attention From Other Issues
It can divert attention from crucial issues like poverty, development, and corruption.
Leads To Tensions, Conflict And Violence
In some cases, caste divisions in politics can lead to increased tensions, conflict, and even violence.